Definition and History of Distance Education
By: Jandy Gu, Shalaunda Reeves, Anita Stephen and Jiahui Wang
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
- Recall the definition of Distance Education and its elements.
- Demonstrate knowledge of the history of distance education, the influential figures and major events that promote the development of distance education
- Identify and explain the benefits and criticisms of distance education
- Elaborate the global impact on Distance Education.
Introduction
In this chapter, we will elaborate the history of distance education, definition, and how it evolved throughout the century with the various methods. We will also talk about the influential figures, their accomplishment, and major events that promoted the development of distance education. As global education and education policy also played a pivotal role in distance education, we will go into details about some important educational policies relating to distance education. Finally, we will discuss the benefits and challenges of distance education.
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Defining Distance Education
As the concept and practice of teaching students has evolved beyond the traditional brick- and- mortar classroom, the term to encapsulate this practice has also evolved. With researchers predicting distance education to account for almost fifty-percent of learning by 2050 (Bennett, 2008) ; it is imperative that there is a term that is holistic enough to capture the vast learning options that are available beyond the traditional classroom setting.
The history of distance education will be discussed in depth later on in the chapter. However, the term distance education has evolved over its century and half of existence. Distance education was first known as correspondence learning in the mid 1800’s. The name originated from the practice of instructors mailing a syllabus to learners, who in return mailed their assignments to the instructor (Caruth &Caruth, 2013).
When the radio became a common technology found in most homes during the early 1900’s, schools began to offer radio courses through various Radio and Universities licensing agreements. This became known as Schools of the Air (Moore &, Kearsley, 2012). In the early 1950’s television inspired the development of telecourses. Telecourses allowed school districts and Universities to offer courses through the use of close-circuit television; the broadcasting of classes to individuals in a short radius; and produced courses that could be viewed on subscribed channels (Moore et al., 2012). For decades the television was used to host courses until the mid-1990. With the introduction of the Internet, online learning emerged. The new technology enhanced the interaction between instructors and learners, and learners with their peers in real-time.
Though online learning has become the dominant form of instruction and learning from a distance, in an effort to encompass the vast forms of instructing and learning from a distance the term distance education will be used throughout this book. There is not a standard definition for distance education. However, in the 1980s Desmond Keegan developed five methodical and coherent sets of elements to provide a distinction between distance education and traditional teaching and learning (Holmberg, 2005).
- The quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout the length of the process (this distinguishes it from conventional face-to-face education).
- The influence of an educational organization both in the planning and preparation of learning materials and in the provision of student support services (this distinguishes it from private study and teach-yourself programs).
- The use of technical media- print, audio, video or computer- to unite teacher and learner and carry the content of the course.
- The provision of two-way communication so that the student may benefit from or even initiate dialogue with the instructor or peers (this distinguishes it from other uses of technology in education).
- The quasi-permanent absence of the learning group throughout the length of the learning process so that people are usually taught as either individual or group.
Keegan’s elements shaped the definition of distance education adopted for this book. According to Benson (2004), “Distance Education implies formal instructionally- based educational activities where the teacher and student are normally separated from each other in location but not normally separated in time, and where two way interactive telecommunication systems are used for sharing, video, data, and voice instruction “ (p.52).
A quick analysis of the definition for distance education reveals the key elements highlighted by Keegan. It is imperative that distance education is grounded in a formal educational institution. As well, both the teacher and student are normally in separate locations, however, with blended classes separate locations may not always be the case. Further, interactive communication is identified in the definition to highlight the transfer of communication from instructor- to- learner, or learner- to – instructor, or learner – to – learner. Lastly, the use of various technologies can be used to deliver and receive content.
Other terms such as: e- learning, online learning, and distant learning are commonly used when referencing distant education. However, these terms only reference one side of the process that takes place when education occurs from a distance. It is imperative to recognize the role of the instructor equally to that of the learner and therefore, the term distant education encompass the vast forms that are used when teaching and learning occurs from a distance (Moore et al., 2012).
Early Technologies in Distance Education
It is very common for one to think that distance education was conceptualized with the introduction of the home computer and Internet access. However, distance education actually has a long period of existence well before the emergence of computer technology. Distance education evolved from the idea of correspondence education. The concept of distance education was developed using radio and television, and later expanded into a worldwide format of education with the various types of modern technologies.
Correspondence education
Correspondence education is the first example of distance education. Correspondence education is different from traditional face-to-face education in the way that learners receive lessons and assignments via mail delivery system. Then learners complete assignment and return it in order to receive a grade.
The earliest record of distance education took place in 1833. A Swedish newspaper advertised the idea of studying Composition through the medium of the Post (Gunawardena & McIsaac, 2001). A few years later in 1840, Caleb Phillips advertised shorthand lessons through the mail in the Boston Gazette, which was known as the correspondence course (Freeman, 1999).
Sir Isaac Pitman was another pioneer in the development of correspondence courses. He advanced the novel idea of Caleb Phillips – teaching shorthand courses through the mail starting in 1843 (Freeman, 1999). The primary difference was that he initiated an actual back and forth between teacher and students. He mailed transcribed cards to students with feedback. Postcards with his new form of shorthand, known as Pitman shorthand, would be mailed to the students who in turn would transcribe them and send them back for correction. Three years later, he founded Phonographic Correspondence Society, which was the precursor to Isaac Pitman Correspondence Colleges (Freeman, 1999; Gunawardena & McIsaac, 2001; Schlosser & Simonson, 2010). Throughout the rest of the century, correspondence lessons provided education to thousands of people who otherwise would not be able to obtain education due to economic, geographical, and family reasons.
One of the greatest benefits of distance education at the time was to provide people access to quality education who could not afford to attend higher education institutions. For example, women were not able to receive a quality education compared to men. In 1873, Anna Eliot Ticknor founded the Society To Encourage Learning At Home, with the intention of educating women through correspondence. This was the first correspondence school in the United States. The school comprised of a network of women teaching women by mail. This organization provided thousands of women access to education, especially for women who did not come from affluent backgrounds. Over its 24-year history, more than 10,000 women received an education, which was otherwise not possible for them (Freeman, 1999; Gunawardena & McIsaac 2001; Santiago, 2015; Schlosser & Simonson, 2010). The society succeeded in preparing women for entering universities and careers. Ticknor’s society was one of the early examples that distance education expanded access to education for those who were traditionally marginalized.
A few years’ later, prestigious universities in the United States began to disseminate quality education to the public via correspondence courses. In 1877, Illinois’ Wesleyan began promoting the correspondence method of instruction. Wesleyan offered both undergraduate and graduate degrees as part of a distance education program. In 1883, people could obtain academic degrees via attending a correspondence study program at the Chautauqua College of Liberal Arts. Additionally, outside the United States, distance education was developing via correspondence courses as well. In 1858, the University of London offered distance-education degrees. The University of London established the first External Program that provided learners from less affluent backgrounds with the opportunity to obtain higher education. The University of London applauded the attempt at making scholarly pursuits more accessible to the masses and was described as “The People’s University” by Charles Dickens at the time (Freeman, 1999; Santiago, 2015).
In 1877, the University Correspondence College in London was also founded. In 1891, the Mining Herald editor, Thomas J. Foster, offered a correspondence course in mining for immigrant coal miners. His business developed into the International Correspondence Schools in 1888. Enrollment skyrocketed through the 1890s (Freeman, 1999). The popularity of the correspondence program soared. The school was in operation through 1996.
In 1892, the extension department at the University of Chicago began promoting the correspondence method of instruction. The president of the college, William Rainey Harper, proposed the idea of correspondence education. The University of Chicago established the first correspondence academic program in the United States. They proposed the idea of satellite campuses so that those who were not able to travel to the main campus could go to a smaller school locally and obtain a university education (Gunawardena & McIsaac, 2001; Schlosser & Simonson, 2010). As a result of this movement, Harper is considered one of the greatest contributors to academia in the late 19th century. He advocated the idea of correspondence study and suggested correspondence learning would reach a larger number of learners than the traditional classroom.
Radio and TV
As radio and television became firmly rooted in the American culture, educators embraced the new technology and used it to further develop distance education around the globe. The development of radio and television moved the history of distance education into a new era of electronic communication. This period of time had witnessed many successful examples of how distance education benefited from radio and television technologies. One of the early examples to use radio to deliver education is Wisconsin’s School of the Air, which affirmed that the boundary of school is actually boundary of state (Gunawardena & McIsaac, 2001).
Pennsylvania State University was the first university to teach courses over the radio, beginning in 1922. By the mid 1920’s, 200 colleges and universities were granted broadcasting licenses furthering the expansion of distance education. The 1930’s promoted the use of the television in distance education. The State University of Iowa aired the first instructional television program in 1932. Iowa, along with two other major universities, (Kansas State University and Purdue University) experimented with what was later known as telecourses. Throughout the decade, experimental television courses were offered by these three universities (Gunawardena & McIsaac, 2001; Schlosser & Simonson, 2010). In this decade, numerous educational programs were broadcasted by hundreds of educational institutions.
In 1948, the University of Louisville headed by John Wilkinson, along with the National Broadcasting Corporation, offered college education by radio, which entailed course materials sent through the mail and a weekly classroom discussion broadcast. The 1950’s witnessed many colleges offering credit courses via television. For example, starting in 1951, Western Reserve University, offered college level courses via broadcast television. In 1957, New York University offered a televised series of college courses in conjunction with Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) called Sunrise Semester. Sixteen years later in 1964, the University Of Wisconsin in Madison offered a variety of communication technologies geared toward off-campus learners. Moreover, Stanford University created a Stanford instructional television network for broadcasting 12 engineering courses; the network is still in use today (Freeman, 1999; Gunawardena & McIsaac, 2001; Santiago, 2015; Schlosser & Simonson, 2010).
Current Distance Education Technologies
The field of distance education is changing, reacting to new technologies as well as the available infrastructure and educational approaches in countries around the world. Currently, computer-supported learning and similar digital media technologies are quickly becoming the dominant medium through which to deliver distance instruction. The efficacy and shortfalls of these technologies will be discussed further in Chapter 4, but in this section we will briefly discuss the development of these technologies and their place in learning environments.
Computer-based learning usually refers to the use of a wide variety of technological devices in classrooms, from laptops to smart phones. These approaches leverage computer applications and software to engage students. With laptops and tablets, students are able to interact with visual, audio and text components simultaneously. They can save and transport files as well as communicate easily with others with these devices.
Earlier computer-based instruction like these have led to the development of course management tools used on the Internet, such as WebCT, Canvas, Blackboard, and Moodle.
These platforms shifted focus from the delivery of course content through various communication formats to integrating student feedback, discussion, and interaction using web-based templates (Gunawardena & McIsaac, 2001).
Global Distance Education and Distance Education Policy
Many other countries had a hand in developing distance education formats. While the United States has implemented distance education in the various forms previously discussed, other countries around the world also contributed to the evolution of distance education today in terms of medium, approach, and particularly, policy. This section will address some of these contributions and how they influence contemporary policies that affect distance education.
In 1969, the British Open University began using a combination of technology and print-based materials in instruction carefully designed for three different types of courses: undergraduate, graduate, and associate. Instruction was delivered primarily through print but supported by various technologies. The courses required consistent monitoring and were successfully utilized by over one hundred thousand students. Other universities, in both developing and developed countries began implementing a similar model (Keegan, 1986). The British Open University still keeps one of the most extensive collections of literature and research on international distance education today. Other leading universities in providing distance education courses include: Fern Universität of Germany, the University of Twente in the Netherlands, the American Open University, Nova Southeastern University, and the University of Phoenix.
In addition to establishing programs that incorporate distance education, it is also important to note the policies at both a national and local level around the world that have contributed to distance education. In places where education is centralized through the national government, it is more common to see large distance education programs and the use of public technology infrastructures to deliver materials over broadcast instruction (McIsaac, Murphy, & Demiray, 1988; Gunawardena & McIsaac, 2001).
While the United States does not have a central education authority, the Office of Technology Assessment conducted a study in 1989 called Linking for Learning, which evaluated the needs of state and local schools in order to restructure communication initiatives. Various institutions, like the Pew Research Center, have worked on researching policy formation and investigating ways to ensure quality in distance education. In 2000, the Web-based Education Commission specifically evaluated the capacity of the Internet to facilitate learning and influencing policies that would help leverage this new communication technology (Gunawardena & McIsaac, 2001).
Education policy often needs to be adjusted in reaction to the development and widespread implementation of new technologies. A significant national policy change occurred with the passage of the Internet Equity and Education Act in 2001, which amended the Higher Education Act of 1965 to be more forgiving of distance education formats (congress.gov). The Higher Education Act contained prohibitions and limitations regulating student financial assistance in correspondence courses with provisions such as the 50 percent rule, which states that students were eligible to receive financial assistance for courses that delivered at least half of their instruction materials in person (congress.gov, 2015-2016). The Internet Equity and Education Act allowed exemptions for institutions of higher education that deliver instruction through telecommunications and widened access to educational materials through distance education.
Benefits of Distance Education
There are several benefits of distance education. We will discuss some of the common benefits of distance education. Then explore why learners choose distance education as compared to the traditional classroom learning. Finally, we will discuss how the Rehabilitation Act can assist learners with disabilities to participate in distance education.
Flexible
One major benefit of distance education is flexibility. The learner is able to do the learning at his or her own pace, time, and place. The Florida Virtual School’s slogan (2016) states that distance education can occur “any time, any place, any path, and any pace. This method of flexibility promoted the growth of distance education and has allowed institutions to reach a broader population of students with few instructors. This is one of the most popular reasons why learners choose distance education (O’Lawrence, 2007). Flexibility is for both teachers and learners. Teachers can incorporate their own style into the development of the course. Adult learners need the flexibility of time and cost when pursuing their interests and higher education. They want the ability to communicate and hear speakers from diverse backgrounds who they normally would be unable to meet in person (Bernard, Abrami, Lou, Borokhovski, Wade, Wozney, Wallet, & Fiset, 2004). Flexibility has also increased enrollment in schools where admissions are difficult (O’Lawrence, 2007).
The flexibility of distance education provides all learners regardless of age, to pursue their goals and interests and to obtain a degree from anywhere in the world. They learn at their own pace and in a comfortable environment. Distance education is viewed by society as a dynamic method of education and learning. Nunes and Gaible (2002) describe distance education as a unique interaction between learner-content in utilizing text, visual, audio, animation, other forms of graphic and interfaces. Learners have the accessibility to be mobile with their electronic device. Flexibility gives learners the ability to access distance education courses from wherever they are depending on Internet connection.
This flexibility also offers learners time to respond to questions as compared to a traditional classroom. Learners who have difficulty answering questions in classrooms can take their time and answer questions at their pace. Learners do not need to give immediate feedback to questions as if in a classroom setting. They can have time to reflect and research their answers. Learners can also learn from peers, support their argument with citations, and receive constructive feedback (US News, 2016).
Affordable
Initially, affordability was a factor in distance education learners. The prices for online courses are somewhat more economical due to no commuting, less materials, and time saved from moving from one place to another. There are also reduced operational costs for the institution (O’Lawrence, 2007). Currently, many institutions have additional charges for distance education and the benefits to the learner regarding costs can be questionable. This is a suitable topic for further research. As per affordability, majority of employers offer financial support to learners who will commit to work for their company after obtaining their degree (Zillman, 2016). These costs are set costs and do not cover all the extra costs associated with books, distance education fees, and courses fees.
Balance
Today’s adult learners want to balance their educational interests with work and home life. Distance education provides the perfect venue for these motivated learners, who are self-disciplined and committed (Schrum & Hong, 2002). Many institutions provide distance education programs that can accommodate to the learner’s schedule. Certain programs even offer all required course materials delivered to the learner’s address. Learners get support from mentors via phone or email (Bernard, et al., 2004).
Accessible
Distance education has opened opportunities for students who were unable to physically attend due to disabilities, transportation, or other personal issues that prevented them from learning and getting a degree. The Rehabilitation Act that was amended in 1998 requires all Federal agencies to make informational and electronic technology accessible to individuals with disabilities. The information has to be equivalent to what other learners receive (GSA, 2001). The law states that qualified learners shall not be denied admission based on their disability to an institution receiving Federal financial assistance. The institution should not cause any undue burden to individuals with disabilities. Instructional designers and educators need to take into account this law when planning and creating online materials. The activities for the learners need to be beneficial for all learners.
Criticisms of Distance Education
This section will explore some of the challenges facing both instructors and learners. Although distance education continues to burgeon and develop, several challenges face the learner and instructor. These challenges provide opportunities for distance education providers to keep improving the implementation of distance education.
Decreased or no face to face communication
The onset of distance education gave way to several negative criticisms. One being that communication was lost due to decreased or no face-to-face contact. Currently, the advances in technology have provided images, videos, animation, improved knowledge of best practices and community building to assist with this criticism. The lack of interactivity in many distance education courses arises from a lack of planning from the part of the designer and instructor. This creates a medium where learners feel disconnected from the teacher, materials, and environment. Learners are then unable to transfer the learning material and become successful (Means, Toyama, Murphy, & Baki, 2013).
For profit
The name for-profit is associated with certain universities and colleges that are managed and overseen by private associations and corporations (NCSL, 2013). Not all private institutions are for-profit. The proliferation of distance education created a plethora of institutions offering distant education at a hefty cost for the learner. The increased costs incurred loans and debts for the learner. U.S. News and World Reports (2014) state that 90 percent of for-profit graduates had loans reaching close to 40,000. The for-profit institutions grew during the weak job market, as college education became an appealing alternative for individuals who could not find jobs.
For the school year of 2009-2010, for-profit institutions received $32 billion in federal grants and loans and $7.5 billion in Pell Grants (NCSL, 2013). These incentives also attracted students to distance education. Recent state legislation offers protection for students. It holds schools accountable for providing appropriate degrees and assesses the distribution of state student aid (NCSL, 2013). The fees for-profit colleges averaged $15,130 in the 2013-2014 academic year as compared with $3,264 at two-year public colleges (U.S. News & World reports, 2014).
Quality
Along with the proliferation of distance educational offerings, there was also a stigma that unqualified teachers were teaching and the teaching was less than adequate. Many institutions were non-credited and were not recognized by employers. The result of this phenomenon produced graduates who had difficulty obtaining jobs. The other thought was that distance education did not provide an avenue for critical thinking. Learners were plagiarizing, or not using their own thoughts and ideas to learn. The learner needs such as age, educational level, cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds, interests and experiences were not considered prior to the offering of courses (Bernard, et al., 2004). This concept of efficacy is elaborated in chapter three, research in distance education.
Technology training and experience
Although technology is the primary piece of distance education, users and trainers did not have adequate training in using technology. Initially, users and trainers were novice to technology and inexperienced. Therefore distance education instructions were of poor quality and certain learners had difficulty using computers efficiently. Distance education was unable to create a meaning communication with the user and trainer and therefore yielding a dissatisfied user and trainer. The familiarity of delivery system and method were not taken into account along with creativity and interactivity (Sherry, 1996).
Preparation
Initially, the preparation by the instructional designer and instructor are extensive. Instructors were hesitant due to the increased workload in transferring courses online. Their anxiety can be elevated due to the unfamiliarity of the project at hand. Instructors needed to transfer their traditional method of teaching to a distant format. They were unaware of the outcome. This notion of uncertainty deterred qualified instructors to offer distance education (Sherry, 1996).
Chapter Summary
The history of distance education, definition, and how it evolved throughout the century were discussed with the various methods. The influential figures, their accomplishment, and major events that promoted the development of distance education were cited. Global education and education policy also played a pivotal role in distance education. The benefits and challenges of distance education were stated and elaborated. For the future, there will continue to be challenges as technology flourishes for the learner.
Definition and History Practice Assessment
The end-of-chapter practice assessment retrieves 10-items from a database and scores the quiz with response correctness provided to the learner. You should score above 80% on the quiz or consider re-reading some of the materials from this chapter. This quiz is not time-limited; however, it will record your time to complete. The scores are stored on the website and a learner can optionally submit their scores to the leaderboard. You can take the quiz as many times as you want.
Discussions
- What do you think of when you see the words “distance education”? How do your thoughts correspond with or contradict the definition provided in the text? How do you think distance education differs from online learning, web-based learning, or other such terms?
- What do you think about the benefits and challenges of distance education compared to classroom education? Are there ways in which advances in technology or other innovations may mediate the challenges of distance education?
- How has the implementation of distance education been constrained or facilitated by advances in technology and communication? Where do you think distance education is headed based on recent technological innovations?
- Do you feel that the United States current policies on distance education is comprehensive and adequate? Why or why not?
- What do you think are the qualities that make distance education successful? Think about both larger scale policies and smaller scale issues of curriculum or module instructional design.
Assignment Exercises
- Directions: After reading Chapter 1 Introduction, History, and Definition of Distance Education, develop a timeline using the online tool Time Toast to visually represent the evolution of Distance Education. Include influential figures that help propel distance education at each stage represented on your time.
- Directions: After reading Chapter 1 Introduction, History, and Definition of Distance Education, develop a commercial using the online tool PowToons to showcase the definition of distance education and the elements of distance education discussed in the chapter. Be sure to provide a visual representation for each element. Be creative!
- Directions: After reading Chapter 1 Introduction, History, and Definition of Distance Education. Choose two criticisms of distance education. Brainstorm ideas schools or students can incorporate to decrease the impact of the criticism on their educational experience.
- Next choose benefits of distance education. Why do you feel that they are benefits? Create a scenario showcasing how the benefits positively impact a student’s education experience.
- Directions: After reading Chapter 1 Introduction, History, and Definition of Distance Education, Research the term Open Education Resources (OERs), develop possible benefits and criticism of OERs . Write a short essay explaining your findings.
- Directions: After reading chapter 1 Introduction, History, and Definition of Distance Education, In a short essay discuss what role countries outside of the United States played in the evolution of distance education.
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