Response and Reflection

Misa, T. (2004). Leonardo to the Internet: Technology and Culture from the Renaissance to the Present. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Reading this text after reading all the other articles was helpful in understanding the approach to Misa's literary style and the method of inquiry used to explain the history of mankind.  Misa's text Leonardo to the Internet: Technology and Culture from the Renaissance to the Present presents a comprehensive overview of some of the most important human creations in our short existence, the inventors and engineers of these creations, and the impact of these things on society.  He divides the history into eight distinct time periods, and conveniently, eight chapters in his text followed by a closing chapter where he concludes with some interesting points, such as the connection between science and technology being often overstated in modern thinking.  Since this was a relatively long text, I will try to hit some of the key points he made in each period and provide a final discussion.

In the first chapter, Misa explains the role of Leonardo and many of his colleagues in the development of the period were refer to as the Renaissance.  Leonardo and his colleagues, as pointed out by Misa, were really engineers and architects of city-states and courts.  The technologies of this era were focused on "warfare, city-building, courtly entertainments, and dyanistic displays" (p. 13).  From the notebooks of Leonardo, our historians were able to extract some of the most useful innovative ideas, experimental approaches to science and technology, and technological insights that were far passed Leonardo's day.  Misa then moves the discussion to Gutenberg and his movable press that resulted in an explosion of information in mostly scholarship and religion, such as escalating the prominence of Martin Luther and the protestant reformation.  

In the period following what Misa refers to as the Technologies of the Court, the same courts and city-states began to employ the technologists to improve industry and create wealth.  This did not happen overnight, though.   As we know, waterways like the Rhine river and the Mediterainian provided for the movement and exchange of resources across empires.    Misa uses the case of Spanish and the Dutch to discuss the great maritime innovations during this period and their influence on trade.  The newly developed vessels and their shared ownership increased the wealth potential of these investments.   He connects these innovations with the emergence of capitalism which can be traced back to the merchants of Venice.  

Apparently, it was the Dutch who really built the principles of a capitalistic economy successfully, though Venice is given credit for Capitalism (I certainly did not know this).  Most interestingly, Dutch trade showed tremendous resilience to wartimes.  The English and French waged war on the Dutch temporarily constricting trade.  As soon as things changed, Dutch trade bounced back into action in little time.  This period, characterized by Misa as the Techniques of Commerce, speaks of major innovations in technology to improve methods of industry.

The following chapter, which speaks of the Geographies of Industry, really turned my understanding of the industrial revolution upside down.  I was always taught that the history of the industrial revolution could be traced to period in England and that London was the major city of this shift in our history.  According to Misa, this is untrue. Industry changes formed in many states and cities all throughout Europe.  He uses the case of beer to illustrate the connection of the industry and sanitation, agriculture, and consumption.   I cannot wait to share this information with my father (from Germany, and very particular about the history of beer.  Misa also discusses the industrial history of Manchester by saying that "if immense size exemplified London, swift growth provides the conceptual key for Manchester" (p.74).  He discusses some of the major machine innovations and the consequential growth in production.

Another interesting point is the influence of quality machinery on the life expectancy of workers in the different production regions.  "Steam not only directly killed many grinders, through dangerous working conditions, but also indirectly brought deaths of many who crammed them and their families into the poorest industrial cities" (p. 91).  Production technology dictated the lifestyles and expectancy of people during these periods.  He finishes this period by discussion how each country approached the industrial revolution using their own path.  Contextual factors like resources within the nation, waterways, and politics all influenced industry.

Misa's next chapter characterizes a period where technological developments contributing to the power of empires.  He starts the discussion with a case study of the relationship between Brittan and India, and some of the power war tools, like steam powered gunboats.  These vessels proved to be extremely useful in pushing Brittan's demands on China during the Opium wars.  The Chinese war Junks were no match for the Nemesis, and consequently, "had no choice but to accept British terms" (p. 103).  Misa's next emphasis is placed on telegraphs and railroads playing pivotal roles in building empires to assure timely communication and distribution, respectively.  Interestingly, telegraph lines were constructed between India and Europe in the late 1800s.  In terms of railways, every industrial nation built massive railways across geographic regions, but none surpassed the works of the United States. By the early 1900s, the US had more freight cars and passenger cars than any other industrial nation.

The subsequent phase of technological innovation, as described by Misa as the second industrial revolution, was the integration of technological developments into consumer goods and services.  A period in history with new relationships between research universities and the government, the period is characterized the growth in patent laws to protect the intellectual property rights of scientists and engineers.  Much of the technological innovations during this period stemmed from German science and engineering followed by the United Kingdom as evidenced by the proportion of foreign applications for US patents.  This period also included the many innovations of Edison who acquired, on average, forty patents per year (that is amazing).

Misa also discusses some of the major revision to curriculum at MIT.  Physics curricula were transformed into applied science, which soon lead to the creation of the electrical engineering degree.  This era is primarily marked as an era of "science-and-systems", which paved the way for the next generation of materialism and modernism from the 1900s to the 1950s.   Misa starts the sixth chapter by talking about the mass production techniques adopted in both the production and distribution of steel and glass.  These efficient production channels resulted in a period of new architectural feats, including modern factories, office buildings, and living quarters for the layman.

The next phase in technological development as described by Misa, were singularly by the military starting with the needs developed from World War II and ending with the dramatic changes of the Cold was.  Nuclear power, computer chips, artificial intelligence, the Internet, satellites were all born from this digital generation.  Major high-technology companies like IBM, Boeing, Lockheed and many more were primary providers of the military.  Misa's discussion of the environment in Germany during World War II I found especially interesting since I have roots from Germany.  He also characterizes the connection between the US technology and German technology of this time while explaining the origins of the nuclear bomb.  I did not know that the origin of the uranium made such a critical difference in the outcome, nor did I know that the Nagasaki bomb was made of plutonium.  I am glad to know Truman ordered a stop to the third bomb.  He is definitely one of my favorite presidents in history.

Next, Misa goes into a lengthy discussion of the origins of computer and network technology, its relationship with the military, and the key players in this process.  Bell lab's of course played a key role in this process with the silicon transistor.  I knew some of this history, but I did not know how closely related this was to the military.  I have to admit, I was a little disappointed that he did not bring up some other key players during this period.  Grace Hopper or Alan Turing was also made some pretty important contributions during this period.  Then again, how much can one fit in a single chapter?

His chapter from the 1990s to present was less than impressive.  I guess feel this way because I was alive during this period and I know that a lot of other stuff happened during this period.  He used McDonalds and the Internet as a way to characterize a period of Globalization.  He makes the point that multi-national organizations play a prominent role in society, but is careful to not underestimate the importance of the nation-state still in society by eluding to the outcome of 911.

His final chapter, where he makes his closing points I found to be somewhat novel.  As previously mentioned, he makes the point that we overestimate the connection between science and technology.  This leads Misa to what I believe is the essence of the social construction of technology...  that the human and contextual factors of a specific place and time played greater role on influencing technological developments that did science alone.  Of course, science is necessary to create technology, but the emphasis on what to study and the resource allocation from competing sources really dictates what technologies are developed.  In his final point, he says something that I completely agree with: "I believe it is a more pressing problem to understand far better than we do the varied social, political, and cultural consequences of technology" (p. 264).  The one law]that lacks the attention it needs is the law of unintended consequences.